22 ROAR-Inference
ROAR-Inference is a measure of students’ reading comprehension. It measures students’ ability to construct coherent meaning by integrating textual information with background knowledge when processing text (Cevasco and Buralli 2023; Goldman and Graesser 2024; Kintsch 1988; Kintsch and Dijk 1978; Magliano 2024; Zhang, Prykanowski, and Koppenhaver 2023; Zwaan, Langston, and Graesser 1995). Within the ROAR Comprehension Suite, which measures language and reading comprehension skills, inferential reasoning represents a critical cognitive process that bridges literal text comprehension to deeper understanding (Biancarosa 2026; Blum et al. 2020; Graesser, Singer, and Trabasso 1994; Kendeou 2015; Rice et al. 2024; Trabasso 1980). ROAR-Inference is specifically designed to assess students’ ability to evaluate explanatory coherence—how well explanations align with evidence, account for multiple pieces of information, and are grounded in textual support (both implicitly and explicitly)—as compared to competing explanations (Carlson, Broek, and McMaster 2022; Harman 1980; Miller 2019; Read and Marcus-Newhall 1993; Sloman 1994; Thagard 1989; Trabasso, Suh, and Payton 1995). This can be relative to:
logical (i.e., causal) (Arslan and Kominsky 2026; Blum et al. 2020, 2026; Biancarosa et al. 2019; Habermas and Silveira 2008; Davison, Biancarosa, et al. 2018; Hsu 2013; Ness-Maddox et al. 2023; Prat, Mason, and Just 2011; Broek 1990), the HOWs and WHYs,
Informational (Habermas and Silveira 2008; Pettijohn and Radvansky 2016; Rinck and Weber 2003; Zwaan, Langston, and Graesser 1995) the WHO, WHAT, WHERE, and WHEN.
evaluative relations (Blum et al. 2020, 2026; Jolin and Wilson 2022; Özyürek and Trabasso 1997) APPRAISALS and LESSONS
Taken together, they all stem from event-chain relations within text, as they capture not only the nuances that make narrative so rich, but we are also hardwired to be attuned to the nature of coherence (Arslan and Kominsky 2026; Blum et al. 2020, 2026; Bodner et al. 2015; Warren, Nicholas, and Trabasso 1979).
As reading skills develop, the ability to construct and evaluate coherent explanations for what is not explicitly stated becomes increasingly important for academic success. This includes understanding character dynamics, connecting ideas across sentences and paragraphs, and building accurate mental models of events (Blum et al. 2020, 2026; Cain and Oakhill 1999; Graesser, Singer, and Trabasso 1994; Kendeou 2015; Malle and Holbrook 2012; Tompkins, Guo, and Justice 2013; Van Overwalle et al. 2012). Difficulties with inferential reasoning can create bottlenecks for comprehension of complex texts, particularly as academic content becomes more demanding (Barnes et al. 2024; Cain and Oakhill 1999; Carlson, Broek, and McMaster 2022; Lundberg and Reichenberg 2013; Mih and Mih 2024; E. Wilson et al. 2024). ROAR-Inference provides educators and researchers with a reliable, efficient measure to identify students who may benefit from targeted instruction on constructing and evaluating coherent meaning from text.
ROAR-Inference was developed to provide a theoretically-grounded measure that assesses students’ ability to evaluate explanatory coherence across different meaning-making demands. Particularly as it relates to an increasingly sophisticated ability to construct explanations that account for what the text explicitly states, integrate multiple pieces of evidence, and withstand comparison against plausible alternatives to comprehension items. The assessment’s ordered multiple-choice format (Briggs et al. 2006; Morell et al. 2025; M. Wilson et al. 2022) provides diagnostic information (Biancarosa et al. 2019; Liu et al. 2019) about the level of, in our case, explanatory coherence students demonstrate—revealing not just correct answers but specific gaps of understanding as well as areas of strength.
ROAR-Inference was originally designed for students in grades 2-5 but has been successfully administered to students in grades 1-12. It can be administered through an online platform in approximately 10 minutes in a whole-class setting/or individual administration. The assessment aligns with Common Core anchor standards (California Department of Education 2013) and the NAEP Reading Framework’s Integrate and Interpret cognitive target, which emphasizes making inferences and drawing conclusions across literary and informational texts (National Assessment Governing Board:(Bushaw and Stooksberry 2018).
ROAR-Inference complements the ROAR Comprehension Suite by providing focused assessment of students’ ability to construct and evaluate coherent meaning from text. While other ROAR measures assess other reading-related skills (e.g., decoding, phonological awareness, word recognition skills, morphology, syntax, vocabulary), ROAR-Inference addresses thBushaw2018-jpe cognitive processes through which students integrate information and construct coherent interpretations.